Do Forms of Address to Fathers (Ayah, Bapak, Papa) and Daily Language Use Influence Parenting Styles and Parent–Child Emotional Closeness in Indonesia?

Abstract

Emotional closeness between children and parents and parenting styles are central to children’s psychological development. Linguistic features in the family, such as the terms used to address fathers and the language of daily communication, are often assumed to reflect cultural values and relational patterns. However, empirical evidence for these assumptions remains limited, particularly in the Indonesian context. This study examined whether (1) the type of term used to address the father (e.g., Ayah, Bapak, Papa, and others) and (2) the language used in family communication (local language vs. Indonesian) are associated with parenting styles and parent–child emotional closeness. Using a quantitative comparative design, data were collected from 254 participants who completed the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) and the Parenting Style and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ). Analyses were conducted using one-way ANOVA, two-way ANOVA, and independent samples t- tests. The results revealed no significant differences in parenting styles based on daily language use, t (252) = −1.214, p = .190, or on the form of address, F (3, 250) = 0.786, p = .503. Similarly, emotional closeness did not differ significantly by daily language, t (252) = −0.578, p = .564, or by forms of address, F (3, 250) = 2.532, p = .058. Interaction analyses also showed that the combination of language and forms of address had no significant effects on parenting styles (F = 0.297, p = .827) or emotional closeness (F = 0.395, p = .756). These findings suggest that linguistic features within the family do not function as strong determinants of parenting practices or emotional relationships in Indonesia. Instead, parent–child relationships may be more strongly shaped by other psychosocial factors, such as interaction quality, family dynamics, and parenting values. Future studies should explore potential mediating and moderating variables and extend the analysis across diverse cultural contexts.